Air University Review, November-December 1982

Armed Forces and Race Relations

Black Americans have taken part in all of America’s wars. Historians estimate that approximately 5000 blacks fought on the American side in the War for Independence, both as individuals and in segregated units. Several thousand black Americans participated in the War of 1812. John Hope Franklin’s From Slavery to Freedom (1980) indicate that more than 180,000 black Americans served in the Union Army in segregated units. It is a well-documented fact that, following the Civil War, four black regiments were established and active in the Indian wars on the western frontier and later fought with distinction in Cuba during the Spanish-American War (1898). In succeeding years, a general rise in American tensions and specific outbursts of violence between black troops and whites caused opinions to turn against the use of black soldiers.

During the interval between the two world wars, the Army not only remained segregated but also adopted a policy of a quota system that was to keep the number of black Americans in the Army proportionate to the total population.

The book Integration in the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 by Morris J. MacGregor explores the reactionary and discriminatory practices of the military service and shows how these practices prevented the black American from participating fully in the defense of his country.* MacGregor begins with an introductory chapter that explains the policies of the armed forces before 1940. He cites idealism and pragmatism as important factors in the treatment of black Americans. A discussion of the policies of the Army, Navy, Marines, and Coast Guard during World War II in the next three chapters shows that the Army reaffirmed segregation even though it was apparent that segregation affected efficiency. After World War II, pressure from black American and liberal white groups, coupled with the practical aspects of equality in the armed forces, led the Army to reexamine its racial policies. MacGregor clearly indicates that in each of the other branches of the military service, the history of desegregation varied from the Army’s pattern with the Navy leading the way.

*Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1981, for sale by Superintendent of Documents), 647 pages.

In succeeding chapters, MacGregor reveals the problems associated with the integration of the armed forces and the consequences of segregation. On the subject of quotas, he points out that the Gillem Board’s recommendations discussed in chapter six were responsible for some of the problems. In spite of the difficulties inherent in attempting to implement those recommendations, he contends, with supportive evidence, that some progress was made toward the achievement of equal treatment and opportunity for black soldiers. MacGregor’s assertion that the Gillem Board’s recommendations were doomed from the start is an accurate assessment. There were too many prejudices to overcome. Then, too, there was the problem of "making efficient soldiers out of a large group of men who were for the most part seriously deficient in many of the attributes of the efficient soldier." (p. 206)

Although the relationship between segregation in the armed forces and the performance of the black serviceman is still debated in some circles, MacGregor seems to view the black American’s poor performance to be a consequence of his second-class status as a soldier and as a citizen. Thus, the author is indeed correct when he states that "the Army staff had to overcome tremendous obstacles in order to carry out even a modest number of the Gillem Board’s recommendations." (p. 206)

Chapters nine through eighteen deal with the effects of pressures already mentioned in previous chapters—the integration of the various branches of the armed forces and race relations after World War II. Each of the branches of military service sought to end segregation and to develop policies designed to do so in accordance with its own circumstances. Even so, the author contends, the all-pervading social force that affected how each one would eliminate segregation was racial prejudice. Another social force that each of the branches had to face was military tradition. At least in the case of the Navy, it was tradition that prompted the reforming of racial practices. Large numbers of blacks had served in the Navy during the Civil War and for some period afterward. Consequently, the Navy began to modify its restrictive policies and by 1945 had initiated the first effort toward desegregation in any of the branches of military service. The chapter on the postwar Marine Corps clearly shows that the Marine Corps progressed from a policy of exclusion to segregation to integration.

In the introductory chapter, MacGregor points out that equality in the armed forces owed much to political considerations. He continues on this theme by indicating in chapter twelve that one of the factors leading to Executive Order 1981 was the presidential election year. Not only was the courting of the black voter good election politics but also a successful response to the threat of civil disobedience. In spite of presidential intentions, however, there was considerable opposition from the armed forces to the order, and various arguments were given in support of continued segregation. After the Truman desegregation order of 1948, the die was cast. The President established a committee chaired by Charles Fahy. MacGregor discusses the work of this committee in chapter fourteen.

MacGregor uses a number of charts to document the degree of penetration and the kind of distribution characterizing black servicemen in the integrated military establishment. These data were employed by both the military and civil rights leaders to prove or disprove allegations of continued discrimination. In the final chapter, the author explains why he feels the armed forces integrated. In his analysis of the causes, he credits the civil rights movement with having the foremost impact. In piecing together and analyzing the forces influencing the integration of the military service, MacGregor sheds considerable light on the problems and failures of civilian, governmental, and military leadership. He also illuminates the ongoing struggle that followed the end of legal and administrative barriers to equal treatment and opportunity for black Americans in the armed forces. Well researched, clearly and perceptively written, Integration in the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 is a timely and valuable book for anyone interested in this aspect of American history.

Ernest L. Warren (B.S., M.Ed., Alabama State University) is a history instructor at Auburn University at Montgomery, Alabama. He was previously Head of the History Department at Jefferson Davis High School, Montgomery, Alabama.

The conclusions and opinions expressed in this document are those of the author cultivated in the freedom of expression, academic environment of Air University. They do not reflect the official position of the U.S. Government, Department of Defense, the United States Air Force or the Air University.

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