Air University Review, September-October 1981

The Soviets At Sea

Reports from the Middle East indicate that the Soviets have about twenty warships in the Indian Ocean, more than enough to threaten the vital commercial sea-lanes around the Cape of Good Hope. Yet in contrast to this, twenty years ago few Russian ships were sighted beyond their own territorial waters. In just fifteen years the Soviets have built their navy to a position where it now rivals the United States Navy. They have promoted a naval construction program second to none, building on the average of one new submarine per month and recently launching four aircraft carriers.1 Near Leningrad, the Soviets launched a new heavy cruiser, the Kirov, a vessel that resembles a World War II battleship. With more than 1700 merchant ships and over 4000 fishing trawlers, there are few oceans the Soviets are incapable of traversing. Throughout the world’s waterways, wherever one might look, there is a distinct possibility of seeing the Russian flag. In the Mediterranean, the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans, the Soviets are making their presence known. These are the obvious signs of a new, assertive Soviet Navy.

If there is a common denominator underlying these events, it is the leadership of one particular individual: Soviet Admiral of the Fleet S.G. Gorshkov. Called by some the twentieth-century Alfred Thayer Mahan, Gorshkov has managed to survive Stalin, Khrushchev, and Brezhnev to become one of the dominant figures in the Soviet military. Yet he is more than just a theorist he is, in fact, the architect of this new, assertive navy. Thus, when the Naval Institute Press published Gorshkov’s writings in two different books, Red Star Rising at Sea and The Seapower of the State, a unique opportunity became available to read the thoughts of this remarkable admiral. For those who are involved in naval operations as well as those who are interested in the developments of Soviet military policy, these Gorshkov writings provide an unprecedented look into the inner concerns of a top Soviet strategist.

The first book, Red Star Rising at Sea,* is a compilation of eleven Gorshkov articles that originally appeared in the Soviet naval journal Morskoi Sbornik. While the purpose of these articles is debatable, most experts believe Gorshkov was trying to influence the army-dominated Kremlin to begin thinking in terms of sea power. For the most part, Russians have considered themselves a land power in which the navy’s primary role was that of supporting the army. As the time approached for negotiation on SALT I, Gorshkov set out to ensure that if there were to be cuts in the military, the navy would not suffer. Thus the Morskoi Sbornik articles detailed how sea power was needed to balance the total Soviet military posture.

*S.G. Gorshkov, Red Star Rising at Sea, Herbert Preston, editor (Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1974, $15.00), 147 pages.

A study of these articles reveals that Gorshkov used history as the background for his discussion of sea power. In each article the author shows how sea power, or the lack of it, played an important role in various Russian conflicts. Beginning with Peter the Great, Gorshkov details how this Russian tzar used a powerful navy to defeat the Swedes in the Great Northern War. In other essays, the author traces various naval exploits during the Crimean War, the Russo-Japanese War, World War I, and World War II. In each case, Gorshkov tries to show that sea power was an important element in the conflict.

In these essays, there is little doubt of Gorshkov’s basic theme. Time and time again, he interjects the same rhetoric: ‘‘Historically Russia is a maritime nation destined for greatness." With one of the largest coastal shorelines in the world, noted Admiral Gorshkov, Russia has always been a nation with an intense concern for the sea. But, insisted Gorshkov, imperialist propaganda, which labeled the Russian Bear as strictly a land animal, has deterred this thrust. Consequently, this type of restrictive thinking has retarded naval building and kept Russia from becoming a major sea power. These Morskoi Sbornik articles were appeals to replace this type of thinking and concentrate on fulfilling Russia’s true manifest destiny of assuming its rightful place among the world’s great sea powers.

In conclusion, Gorshkov outlines how the Soviets should prepare for mastery of the world’s oceans. He specifically calls on the Russian Navy to "create favorable conditions for the building of Socialism and Communism." (p. 134) Sooner or later, Gorshkov wrote, "the Soviet naval flag will fly over all of the oceans and United States will have to realize that it no longer can dominate the seas." (p. 141)

About six years after the appearance of the Gorshkov papers, his book The Sea Power of the State was published.* The U.S-translated edition appeared in 1979. Considerably more detailed than any of the essays, the book covered a variety of Soviet naval subjects. Again, the dominant theme involved a rationalization for the development of Soviet sea power.

**S. G. Gorshkov, The Sea Power of the State (Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1979, $18.95), 285 pages.

Gorshkov begins the book with various policy statements on the use of the oceans. In this section, he discusses the optimum development of the oceans in such areas as minerals, ship traffic, fishing rights, and international law. The point is developed that unlike the Soviets, who support freedom of the seas, the imperialist powers constantly use the oceans for their own military, political, and economic purposes.

In chapters two and three, Gorshkov again develops the historical perspective. These two chapters comprise about 60 percent of the total manuscript. Just as in his previous writings, Gorshkov details how various historical precedents establish a rationale for sustaining a powerful fleet. He uses World War II as an example and describes how Russia entered the battle without a sufficiently balanced fleet. In particular, Russia had only three battleships and very limited amphibious capability. Yet, throughout the Black Sea area, the Soviet Navy was called on several times to make amphibious landings in support of army engagements. As a World War II commander in the Black Sea, Gorshkov was acutely aware of the problems associated with a fleet that did not have a balanced mission capability. Time and time again, Gorshkov used these types of historical examples to reconcile the need to build a balanced fleet that would include the capabilities to deal with all types of missions.

While much of the book repeats many of the earlier themes, in a section entitled "Fleet against Fleet and Fleet against Shore" Gorshkov discusses the contemporary changing art of naval warfare. Traditionally, fleets were used to fight one another, yet today, noted the admiral, this is no longer true. In the future, battles involving fleet against fleet will be of secondary concern while battles involving the fleet against the shore will assume greater importance. With the advent of carrier aviation and submarine ballistic missiles, the fleet will play significant roles in direct attacks against enemy home bases in a modern war. While the main effort of the fleet will concern the strategic role, a secondary mission will involve the disruptions of the enemy’s naval strategic nuclear capability. Thus, commented Gorshkov, "the fight of the fleet against fleet of an enemy in the new conditions since nuclear weapons have appeared has become a secondary task as compared with the operations of a fleet against the shore." (p. 221) This, he also proposes, should govern all future naval plans.

Continuing this discussion of the art of naval warfare, Gorshkov addresses the role of the fleet in support of liberation movements. Here he presents one of the primary themes of the entire book: "In peacetime the Soviet Navy is an important instrument of state policy." (p. 281) Taking a lesson from the imperialist powers, Gorshkov pointed out that they use their navies consistently to suppress liberation movements. After citing Vietnam as an example, the admiral commented that ships can play a considerable role in influencing other governments. In fact, he noted, practically every recent major liberation movement has had to overcome some type of imperialist naval presence. In essence, peacetime use of the Soviet Navy in support of liberation movements and other diplomatic concerns is constantly expanding. Thus, the fleet has a significant role to fulfill as an instrument of the state policy and diplomacy.

Both these books are quite readable and provide some unique insights into communist thinking. The stark reality of the situation makes the books even more significant. Never before in the history of peacetime has a nation built a navy so rapidly as the Soviets have. Under the leadership of Gorshkov, the Soviet Navy has extended its power far beyond its coastal waterways. Today, the Soviet Navy is one of the world’s great sea powers, and an assessment of this threat must begin with an understanding of Gorshkov and his writings.

1. These ships are also classified as antisubmarine warfare (ASW) cruisers.

Donald D. Chipman (B.A., California State University, Chico; Ph.D., Florida State University) is the Commandant’s Advisor on Education, Squadron Officer School, Maxwell AFB, Alabama. He has served as a professor of education and history at Georgia Southwestern College, Americus, and was a U.S. Navy flight officer and navigator. Dr. Chipman is coauthor of Philosophical Reflections on Education and Society and Critical Issues in Philosophy of Education and has published articles in academic journals. He is a graduate of Squadron Officer School and a previous contributor to the Review.

The conclusions and opinions expressed in this document are those of the author cultivated in the freedom of expression, academic environment of Air University. They do not reflect the official position of the U.S. Government, Department of Defense, the United States Air Force or the Air University.

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